1.1 problem definition
The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
in Dutch education is lagging behind expectation and desire. Hence, the
advisory ‘Commitee On Multimedia In Teacher Training’ (COMMITT, at present
PROMMITT), established by the Dutch Minister of Education, has drawn up
recommendations on the design of the learning process in the future and the
role of ICT to support this process, with a focus on teacher training. The
committee argues for a powerful role of teacher training in the process of
educational innovation and the implementation of ICT. The teacher training
institutes are providing the teachers of the future and the committee assumes
that teachers are the keyfigures in arranging learning processes. The
institutes, therefore, have to anticipate new developments and prepare
prospective teachers for their future role. The nature and extent to which ICT
is being used in education is considered to be a result of synergy between
‘top-down’ and ‘bottom up’ processes. In the latter especially, a contribution
of the teacher training institutes can be expected. According to commit,
teacher training institutes therefore have to shift their focus from dealing
with present education to that of ‘future education’.
Within the PROMMITT action-programme, Stoas Research
analyses the future educational practices of the vet-professional. Accordingly,
teachers can be as much as possible prepared and thus, can encourage the
implementation of ICT in secondary vocational education.
The main research question is: What is the teachers’
prospective role in a richly ICT-designed learning environment and what
competences are required for this role?
1.2 Research questions
The following questions are posed in our study:
What are the consequences of (the use of) ICT in
occupational practice on the attainment targets and curriculum of secondary
(agricultural) vocational education?
What are the interactions between new educational
insights and the use of ICT in educational practice?
What are the consequences of an ‘ICT-integrated’
curriculum (in secondary vocational education) and the use of ICT on the job of
the (future) vet professional?
What is the new – ICT-integrated – job profile of the
VET-professional, based on which the attainment targets and the curriculum of
the teacher training can be altered?
Before presenting the research methods and results, we
will discuss the concept of a richly ICT-designed learning environment and the
status quo of the use of ICT in Dutch vocational education.
1.3 ICT in dutch vocational education
ICT is a generic term referring to technologies which are
being used for collecting, storing, editing and passing on information in
various forms (SER, 1997). A personal computer is the best known example of the
use of ICT in education, but the term multimedia is also frequently used.
Multimedia can be interpreted as a combination of data carriers, for example video,
CD-ROM, floppy disc and Internet and software in which the possibility for an
interactive approach is offered (Smeets, 1996).
Generally, the following functions of the use of ICT in
education are described in literature (SER, 1998, Moonen and Kommers, 1995,
Pilot, 1998).
1. ICT as
object. It refers to learning about ICT. Mostly organised in a specific course.
What is being learned depends on the type of education and the level of the
students. Education prepares students for the use of ICT in education, future
occupation and social life.
2. ICT as an
‘assisting tool’. ICT is used as a tool, for example while making assignments,
collecting data and documentation, communicating and conducting research.
Typically, ICT is used independently from the subject matter.
3. ICT as a
medium for teaching and learning. This refers tot ICT as a tool for teaching
and learning itself, the medium through which teachers can teach and learners
can learn. It appears in many different forms, such as drill and practice
exercises, in simulations and educational networks.
4. ICT as a
tool for organisation and management in schools.
In 1998, OCTO (a Dutch educational research institute)
studied the extent in which ICT is actually being used for realising the
above-mentioned functions. The research was carried out on all educational
levels in The Netherlands. The present work concentrates on vocational
education.
However, given the lack of a sufficient response, a
reliable image for the entire sector cannot be given, but an impression of the
status quo of the use of ICT in vocational education is possible. (Janssen
Reinen, 1999). ICT is never being used as a (learning) objective by 33 of 55
teachers; 27 teachers do not use ICT as teaching material and 21 teachers do not
use ICT as an aid. If the computer is being used, then this is mainly for the
purpose of word processing and exercising the lessons. Thus, it seems that the
computer is being used especially for supporting more traditional educational
settings (Janssen Reinen, 1999).
We can conclude (present work and uncited literature)
that ICT has many technical possibilities, but that the real innovative use of
ICT is not broadly adopted in Dutch vocational education.
1.4 Research method
This paper will discuss the questions concerning ICT and
education (not ICT in occupational practice). Several methods of data
collection were used for this component of the project.
As described in the first paragraph, the main research
question concerned the future learning environment and the teacher’s
prospective role. To know more about this future, several scenarios on future
developments in education have been studied. Because many scenarios have
already been completed, we did not perform our own study, but used the
available literature (e.g. Ter Woude, 1996, Van den Dool e.a., 1998, Pilot
e.a., 1996). Published studies were scanned especially for the role and impact
of ICT. Furthermore, experts were heard about this topic. We gathered
additional information on the role of the teacher by visiting schools where ICT
is already being used ‘extensively’. Information on organisational level was
gathered and interviews were conducted with teachers. These interviews were
aimed AT the teacher’s tasks, roles and required competences to fulfil these
tasks and roles properly. In addition, literature on job profiles of teachers
and implementation literature was studied.
1.5 Results
We will discuss the four main tentative conclusions of
the study.
1.5.1 ‘educational designing-skills’ as the core of the
future teaching profession.
Having to use ICT in an innovative manner is an important
bottleneck teachers have to cope with (Van den Dool, 1998). It can be
interpreted as a ‘design-question’ and allows us to formulate the proposition
that ‘educational designing’ skills form the core of the future teaching
profession.
Based on the scenario-studies and interviews with experts
we can conclude that (to learn how) designing is necessary to be able to
realise the desirable education. Furthermore, reasoned from the actual
situation, it is plausible that teachers do not yet possess these ‘educational
designing skills’ sufficiently at present. We will clarify this.
Given its uncertainties, we do not know what education in
the future will look like. Nevertheless, it is possible to outline scenarios
and to formulate expectations. From previously conducted scenario-studies,
politics appear to have deduced a sort of idealised image of future education
in which ICT is integrated completely. An image in which, for example, ICT is
used for communication between students and teachers, in which internet,
laptops and simulations are being used and (consequently) in which a variety of
learning environments are possible. Teacher-centred and whole-class instruction
is no longer the dominant teaching method. Other essential points are the booms
in the field of ICT and the large availability of information. As a result,
there will be less time for passing on information in education.
Based on this image we can actually conclude that
education is nowadays lagging behind the expectations and wishes. However, in
some scenario-studies, it was pointed out that external developments could
prevent extensive integration of ICT in education. For example, Ter Woude
(1996) has identified the wishes of the consumer and the economical
developments, the situation in a boom or in a recession, as important factors.
Experts especially emphasise the strong coherence between
the strategic ‘design-thinking’ of the schools and of teachers (inside these
schools) and the degree in which education as outlined will be realised.
First of all, schools should, from a society point of
view, reflect on the concept of learning in a future society, the part that
education will play, what they will teach their students. Subsequently, schools
should determine how they can realise this from an educational angle.
Especially it seems to be lacking of this view on society (apart from the
exceptions, Free, 1998).
Once the objectives have been determined, the question of
using (if and when) ICT becomes relevant. In this process, a great variety of
alternatives and choices are possible, which may arise among schools depending
on the way and degree in which they will use ICT as an adequate mean to realise
their educational goals. Whether or not ICT is being used, a vision and
‘educational design’ is necessary.
It seems that the attention focussed on the use of ICT in
education has rather quickened and sharpened the discussion about educational
development and future education.
For what characterises current education? Although
teachers consult each other more frequently, the teacher eventually decides on
the educational practise in his class room. He is responsible and has the
opportunity, as long as the results are satisfactory, to teach in the way he
pleases. However, in practice (the classical teaching situation), the teaching
method usually seems to be determinative and limits the teacher in his
possibilities. Education and teacher are tied to a specific content of education,
timetables, amount of face-to-face instruction, instruction time, class rooms,
etcetera. Even the teacher’s status is laid down (De Wolf, 1998). Legal
provisions also determine the educational practice in schools.
Because of these constraints teachers are insufficiently
challenged and stimulated to create powerful learning environments and guide
students in their learning processes individually and therefore, the use of ICT
does not take place.
Summarising, we can conclude that the implementation of
ICT cannot be realised by blueprints. Schools and teachers should learn and
should be able to design their own educational situation, possibly choosing
from the varied potential ICT has to offer.
1.5.2 The VET-professional beyond counselling of learning
processes. knowledge OF Subject matTer remains important.
Concluding from the scenario-studies and constructivistic
learning theories, the profession of the teacher will shift from transferring
knowledge to guiding learning processes (Van den Dool, 1998, Van Heule, 1998).
It has to do with the fact that information is increasingly available in the
present (knowledge) society. moreover, information is dating so rapidly that
education cannot keep on focussing on the transfer of knowledge any longer.
Instead, it becomes more important that students learn how to search, select,
process and use information. The teacher mostly has to guide these processes.
In interviews, teachers identified this development, although
it is not particularly ICT that determines their role. They point out a new
didactical concept in which the student works more individually and
independently. The use and impact of ICT cannot be separated from this concept.
Would the teacher ‘solely’ be a guide of learning
processes in the future? We answer this question negatively. Firstly, all kinds
of differentiation in functions and tasks become visible in schools, where ICT
already is ‘extensively’ used. On the one hand, this differentiation is a
direct result of ICT-related activities, such as the expansion of the system
management or the presence of a ICT-coordinator. Conversely, differentiation
may be concerned with a vision which is oriented on ‘designing education’, in
which different members of the school organisation each take care of a specific
part of the teaching- learning process.
According to one of our respondents, it is outdated to
expect teachers to perform all aspects of this teaching- learning process
equally well. Education needs more than sole guide s of learning processes; for
example, there is also a need for people who are able to prepare the curriculum
properly and who can create learning environments.
Another respondent expressed it in another way: ‘
Teaching and learning no longer are functions, but roles which pass to others.
Each time the teacher has a different part, and sometimes he actually is a
student. Schools become ‘learning communities’ in which students become
teachers and teachers take place in the school desks.’
Secondly, we can argue, even if this differentiation does
not occur, that the teacher will be more than a counsellor of learning
processes. Discussing the VET-professional, we have to focus on the ‘vocational
content’. Although ICT enables students to provide themselves with their own
‘vocational content’ and ‘subject matter knowledge’, the teacher will still
have an important role, especially the VET-professional. Teachers we interview
expressed this concept. The ‘Procesmanagement Lerarenopleidingen’ (a board of
teacher training institutes in The Netherlands) also values this specific
(oriented on the vocational content) craftsmanship of the VET-professional
(PML, 1998). An appropriate knowledge base is essential for creating powerful
learning environments and for an adequate provision of supporting instructional
material. In the process of transforming information to knowledge, the teacher
plays an important part as well. In short: vocational subject matter remains
important.
1.5.3 ICT-skills partly necessary for using ICT in
education.
Looking at the afore mentioned research results, it seems
unnecessarily to argue for specific ICT-skills for teachers as a key for the
problems experienced by the implementation of ICT in education. How to
implement ICT in education mainly seems to be a design-problem (how does a
teacher create a powerful learning environment?)
Required competences for solving this problem are defined
within the concept of core problems. Core problems can be defined as the
central problems and dilemmas in professional practice as regularly encountered
by professionals and thus characteristic of the profession (Onstenk, 1997).
Core problems are an interesting basis for education, because they define the
professional core and structure and select the professional content. The
professional, as an acting individual, is positioned in the centre.
To guide learning processes can be mentioned as one of
the core problems of future education (compare paragraph 1.5.2). One of the
dilemmas the teacher has to cope with is whether he should ‘direct’ students
learning processes or ‘leave students at their own devices’. A student has to
work as independently as possible, but when should a teacher intervene? And in
what way can a student accomplish the best (independent) learning activity? How
should the teaching- learning process be formed to establish the best learning
achievements? The teacher has to constantly consider which teaching aids or
materials are most suitable to use. Other dilemmas will arise. For example, how
much a teacher has to know about each ICT application (to be aware that the
application is available or to know how to use it). Another dilemma concerns
the question whether the teacher develops the teaching material himself or lets
someone else do it for him.
A teacher requires many educational and didactical skills
to deal with questions adequately (compare Ministerie OC&W, 1998). In
concrete terms, it concerns matters like:
A great pedagogical, didactical an educational
psychological craftsmanship.
To be a professional on the subject matter (vocational
content)
A large knowledge of (the application possibilities of)
modern educational tools.
Skilled to ‘cut to size’ of student guiding processes
(e.g., formulating assignments, structuring the guiding process, assessment
etc.)
The new learning environment differs from the one we are
familiar with; the teacher has to cope with many more uncertainties. A
curriculum in which lessons and content are fixed no longer exists. As a
result, the teacher has to organise his work in another way (working in
projects is mentioned explicitly). Moreover, the teacher cannot create new
learning environments completely independently (anymore). He has to depend on
al kinds of things like the technical infrastructure, timetables and the
activities of other teachers. In doing so, the teacher looses a part of his
autonomy (another core problem) and therefore, he is forced to collaborate with
his colleagues in a way entirely different from that he was used to.
It requires skills like:
Creativity
Flexibility
Logistic skills (e.g. for assigning work- and study
places and grouping students)
Skills for working in projects
Administrative and organisational sills
Collaborating skills.
Furthermore, the interviewed teachers especially
underline the teachers’ attitude concerning the use of ICT in education. New
things are intimidating and are causing resistance. The teachers point out a
‘professional attitude’. Important features of this attitude are being
accessible for innovations in general and of ICT in particular. In the
published literature, there are indications for this as well (compare Voogt en
Odenthal, 1998). Within this topic, one of our respondents pointed out the fact
that ICT is the most fundamental of changes (in education) so far. For the
first time, children can do something their parents cannot and which parents
actually will never learn it in the same way.
Typically for vocational education in The Netherlands is
the fact that schools often (called Regional Training Centre) provide
small-scaled courses, mostly for the regional labour market. This requires an
open attitude with a strong accent on exchanging information and a diverse
offer of opportunities. Even for this, the teacher requires specific skills. It
concerns skills like constructing and maintaining networks, social skills and
sympathy for the problems companies are facing.
A digital driver’s licence and other specific ICT-skills.
From the literature and our interviews we picked up
signals about so-called basic ICT knowledge and skills a teacher had to
possess. Therefore, so called ‘ICT-driver’s licences’ have been created to
serve as instruments for professional development of teachers. However, several
questions can be asked about their usefulness. The opinions differ on this
matter.
On the one hand, it is said that these drivers’ licences
present at least a minimal mastery-level of ICT. Moreover it can diminish some
uncertainty and ‘fear for the unknown’. In politics, furthermore, there is
hardly any doubt about the future necessity of specific ICT knowledge that a
teacher has to possess in order to function in his profession. Instruction
should be compulsory if a teacher lacks this knowledge (cf., OCTO Research,
Janssen Reinen, 1999)
A disadvantage of these digital driver’s licences, and of
standardising specific sets of ICT- skills in general, is the temporary
character of these programmes.
ICT develops rather rapidly, and hence, we do not know
and use all its opportunities yet. Moreover, these opportunities are still
changing. Accordingly, teachers should be equipped with competences that
prepare them for these constant changes; ‘How does a teacher explore the
opportunities and subsequently use them in his teaching?’
Because of the rapidly changing learning environments,
teachers should be conscious of the fact that the skills they acquired, in
their own training, reflect the current state of affairs. Therefore, they are
expected to be responsible and act to be up to date their entire lifetime
(life-long learning).
Also other counter-arguments can be mentioned:
A variety of learning situations will (continue to) exist
in the future as well. There will be schools and teachers who will hardly use
ICT in education.
Teachers have their own responsibility to acquire some
ICT-skills. It is part of their professionalism. Hence, digital driver’s
licences should not be legally compulsorily.
The problem will solve in time. ‘We should focus on the
students and the problem will solve in time’ (according to a respondent).
1.5.4 a different position of Teachers and teacher
training institutes.
Our results call for a re-evaluation of the research
assumptions. The hypothesis was that well-educated teachers are the answer for
successful implementation of ICT in education. This is but a partial
requirement. Our argumentation follows below.
The teachers
In our research, we mainly focussed on the role of the
teacher. Gathering from our case studies, it seems we have to do with
enthusiastic teachers in richly ICT-designed learning environments, who enjoy
to explore the possibilities of ICT and who like to experiment. Furthermore,
they themselves take action to solve their (possible) lack of knowledge and
skills.
This information may give the impression that the
implementation of ICT in education will succeed merely with well-motivated and
capable teachers.
In practice, it seems that a large part of the so-called
ICT pilot projects are not being implemented within the broad range of the
entire school. (cf., Toenders, 1998). For eventually creating ‘new’ education
in which ICT is being used adequately (where possible), we need more than just
well-equipped teachers.
The teacher is part of an entire school organisation.
Published literature concerning implementation processes of innovations (in
general and of ICT in particular) point out relevant factors within the school
organisation which influence a successful implementation of ICT (cf., Ten
Brummelhuis, 1995, Voogt en Odenthal, 1998). It concerns the following,
related, factors:
Organisational preconditions (vision, policy and culture)
Personnel support (knowledge, attitude, skills)
Technical preconditions (infrastructure)
The teacher depends on the specific situation in the
school and therefore, he cannot act autonomously.
The teacher training institutes
As for the implementation of ICT in education, the
PROMMITT committee assumes a great contribution of the teacher training
institutes and considers them a driving force (a key-position via so-called
"bottom up" processes). Presently, the teacher training institutes
fulfil this key-position on only a very small scale, as we concluded from our
interviews and literature analysis (Janssen Reinen, 1999). Teachers mention
they are hardly prepared for new didactical teaching methods and not in the
least for the use of ICT. The learning process often is organised based on the
subject matter.
Even if these teacher training institutes are
well-equipped and students are educated properly, we can not expect young and
just starting teachers to act as ‘change agents’. They have to adjust to the
situations (the typical school organisation) they encounter, and have to
familiarise themselves with new concepts and new applications. This is no
simple task.
To enlarge the role of the teacher training institutes in
the process of implementing ICT, it is suggested to stimulate a collective
approach (teachers, schools, teacher training institutes and teachers in
training) of solving problems in concrete teaching and learning situations. The
follow arguments support such an approach;
Richly ICT-designed learning situations are created and
are needed for both vocational education and the training of future teachers
(in the teacher training institutes) The more the teacher training institutes
develop their curriculum using up-to-date applications, the greater the risk of
educating students for unrealistic situations (comparable situations do not
exist) (cf., the Dutch so-called experimental teacher training institutes).
Teacher training institutes can anticipate by helping and equipping the schools
(vocational education). The institutes may even consider to finance or to
invest.
Teachers could learn from each other. The rapid
developments of ICT require a communication network which actually can be
established by the proposed approach. Teachers learn most from their own
networks (learning from others, cf., Kwakman, 1999, Janssen Reinen, 1999).
There is a great need especially for learning about ICT and its rapid
developments. Teacher training institutes can fulfil an active role in
(learning) networks, on the one hand by arranging and facilitating these
networks and on the other hand by providing the knowledge from which people can
learn. Additionally, the institute can develop its post-initial education in
this way.
Schools and teacher training institutes experience a
comparable process. Schools and teacher training institutes can learn from each
other’s experiences and expertise as well. They experience the same processes
in designing new education. They have similar questions and face the same challenges.
Co-operation based on shared responsibility for educating proper teachers
requires a search for as many ways as possible to fulfil this ambition
(Leenders, 1999)
Source: Jager, A.K. and Lokman, A.H., Impacts
of ICT in education. The role of the teacher and teacher training. (September
22-25, 1999). Retrieved from:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001201.htm.
